Paul of Tarsus

Paul of Tarsus or Saint Paul is considered by many Christians today to be the most important disciple of Jesus, and beside this the second important found in the development of Christianity. Saint Paul had a major impact on the spread of Christianity, contributing to the underlying unity of the religious tradition by helping expand Jesus’ original teachings into a developed integrated belief system. The reason why Paul of Tarsus was one of the most significant persons in Christianity is because of his contributions of the development of Christianity, establishing it as a destructive and flourishing tradition. Some of Paul’s contributions were his missionary journeys. Paul’s mission journeys are best understood as systematic plan to take Christianity to Gentiles. His Roman citizenship helped him in considering how widespread Christianity could be. The Christian missions as the disciples understood it was a Jewish mission; the preparations for the end of time involved only the chosen people. Paul’s great innovation was the successful expansion of the Christian mission to include Gentiles; in the end, this was why Christianity survived as a religion. Paul’s Missionary Journeys worksheet). Although many of Paul’s teachings have been contributed in the formation of Christianity, his teachings have also caused many controversies for the faith. This started with his controversial championing of the Gentiles but also caused other strong divisions in early Christianity. Other elements of Paul’s teachings eventually stimulated the Reformation- the pre-emine nt schism in the history of Christianity. In addition, still others of Paul’s words cause controversy for the modern Christian Church in ‘his’ insistence on a subservient role for women and his condemnation of homosexuality. As a member of the Hellenic world, Paul recognised the relevance of the message of Christianity beyond the Jewish faith. He became an advocate for the inclusion of the Gentiles among the true followers of Christianity. Until Paul’s challenge, Jewish Christians believed that non-Jews had to convert to Judaism and follow the law, which included restrictions and circumcision. Gentiles who worship in the synagogue but did not become proselytes were called god-fearers and were only second-class citizens in the synagogue. As the Gentiles did not follow kashruth, many Christian Jews refused to eat with Christian Gentiles, believing them to be unclean and not acceptable. This had implications for church fellowship and for the ritual celebration of the Lord’s Supper. Paul challenged this belief, (Galatians 2: 11-14) most strongly at the Council of Jerusalem in 50 CE. This lead to the decision by the early Christian leaders to enable Gentiles as well as Jews to be followers of Jesus of Nazareth and to call themselves Christians. Permitting freedom from the laws of kashruth and circumcision allowed Christianity to spread more freely amongst the Gentiles and is why Paul is so significant today. (Christianity vs. Judaism worksheet). Paul’s writings on social issues were just as influential on the life and beliefs of the Christian culture, and are still considered part and parcel of the broader Christian doctrine by the more conservative Christians. Paul condemned sexual immorality; homosexuality in particular, apparently based on the strict moral laws of the Old Testament, as well as presumably his own private revelation form the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 6:9f; Eph, 5:21-33). Some of his other dictums included device to his contemporaries not to marry in the expectation of the near return of Jesus and the Apocalypse; and the command to young men who have trespassed by sleeping with a woman to marry her, a notion that remained prominent in the European culture and the English Common Law until relatively recently. His statements are also apparently critical of women holding visible roles in church leadership. Paul may have been ambivalent towards slavery, saying that pending the near return of Jesus, people should focus on their faith and not on their social status (1 Cor. 7:21f). Due to his authority, these views have had an influence in Western society into modern times; Paul’s failure to explicitly condemn slavery in his Epistle to Philemon may have been sometimes interpreted as justifying the ownership of human beings. Paul of Tarsus helped extend Christianity and had a greater impact on the early religion than anyone else. His connections and Roman citizenship allowed him to spread the Gospel more easily. His wealth helped the poor, which provided good public relations. Paul's rejection of circumcision and founding of the Roman church allowed the religion to thrive and survive the Jewish Revolt. This significance made Christianity become a separate faith shaped by Paul’s vision of salvation through the Risen Savior, which helped with the expression and development of Christianity today. Although not of all Paul’s letter are established as being from the hand of Paul, all of them show the dominance of his theory. Each of Paul’s letters shared a common purpose- uniting the new believers behind a common theology. Paul was excited about being able to minister at last in this church, and everyone was well aware of that fact (Romans 1:8-15). The letter to the Romans was written from Corinth; however, the significance of Romans if far greater than its relevance just to that city. The Book of Romans is primarily a work of doctrine and can be divided into four sections: righteousness needed, 1:18–3:20; righteousness provided, 3:21–8:39; righteousness vindicated, 9:1–11:36; righteousness practiced, 12:1–15:13. Paul first condemns all men of their sinfulness. He expresses his desire to preach the truth of God’s Word to those in Rome. It was his hope to have assurance they were staying on the right path. He strongly points out that the gospel (Romans 1:16) is the power by which everyone is saved outlining his belief in the risen Christ. The Book of Romans speaks about God, who He is, and what He has done, of Jesus Christ, and what His death accomplished. Paul points out that God did not demand men have their lives straightened out before coming to Christ. From this letter Paul purpose in writing was to proclaim the glory of the Lord Jesus Christ by teaching doctrine and edifying and encourage the believers who would receive his letter. These principles remain at the core of Christian teaching today, partly due to the forces into which Paul presented them.

Apush Textbook Notes

Shaping of North America – Pangea Split North America formed – â€Å"America’s Mountains† = Rockies, Sierra Nevada, Cascades, Coast Ranges Peopling the Americas – 35,000 years ago = Ice Age Glaciers that connected Eurasia with N. America (present day Bering Sea) Nomadic Asian hunters (immigrant ancestors of the Natives) Trekked across the Bering isthmus for 250 centuries Reached far tip of S. America (15,000 miles from Siberia) By the time Europeans arrived in 1492, 54 million people inhabited the two Am. Continents Incas in PeruMayans in Central America Aztecs in Mexico – Four Great Nations (Natives, before colonists) Aztecs Maya Inca Cahokia – Maize = Indian corn – Built elaborate cities and carried on far-flung commerce – Mathematicians (made accurate astronomical observations) – Aztecs Sought the favor of their gods by offering human sacrifices (over 5,000 people ritually slaughtered for crowning of ONE chiefta in) The Earliest Americans – Agriculture Corn growing Accounted for size and sophistication of Na. A. in Mexico and S. A. 000 BC, hunter-gatherers in highland Mexico developed wild grass into the staple crop of corn – Became staff of life and foundation of complex, large-scare, centralized Aztec and Incan nation-states that eventually emerged Process went slowly and unevenly Corn planting reached American Southwest by 1200 BC – Pueblo people (Rio Grande valley) constructed irrigation systems to water their cornfields.Dwelled in villages of multistory buildings. – No dense concentrations of population or complex nation states comparable to the Aztec empire existed in N. Am. outside of Mexico when the Europeans arrived. Mound Builders (Ohio River valley), Anasazi (Southwest) sustained large settlements after incorporating corn planting. – Cultivation of MAIZE, BEANS, SQUASH – â€Å"Three-Sister† Farming: Beans growing on trellis of corn stalks and squash covering the planting mounds to retain moisture in the soil – Highest population densities: Creek, Choctaw, Cherokee – Natives in N. Am. lived in small, scattered, impermanent settlements – Women tended to crops, Men hunted, fished, gathered fuel and cleared fields for planting – Iroquois Developed matrilinear cultures, power and possessions passed down the female side of the family line.Natives didn’t want to manipulate nature aggressively – Revered physical world and endowed nature with spiritual properties Indirect Discoverers of the New World – Norse seafarers from Scandinavia had chanced upon the northeastern shoulder of N. Am. AD 1000. – Landed near present day Newfoundland Lots of grapes – Named Vinland Forgotten except for in song Europeans Enter Africa – Marco Polo (Italian adventurer) returned to Europe 1295, telling tales about China – Portuguese Columbus Comes upon a New World – Oct 12, 1492 = Sighted island in Bahamas – Discovery convulsed four continents Europe AfricaTwo Americas – Global economic system When Worlds Collide – Columbus Exchange â€Å"Discovered† America Old New: Wheat, sugar, rice, coffee, horses, cows, pigs, smallpox, measles, bubonic plague, influenza, typhus, diphtheria, scarlet fever, slave labor New Old: Gold, silver, corn, potatoes, pineapples, tomatoes, tobacco, beans, vanilla, chocolate, syphilis New race Hispanic/Latino The Spanish Conquistadores – 1500s God, glory, GOLD. Encomienda Any Spaniard with a farm or a mine can force natives to work for them – 1512: New laws of Spain (to address the above about Encomienda) – Europe + Africa + AmericasElizabeth Energizes England Francis Crake was a sea dog of Queen Elizabeth Sir Walter Raleigh organized a trip in 1585 in North Carolina’s Roanoke Island to try to colonized it England on the Eve of Empire 27-28: enclosing [enc losure]; tenancy; joint-stock companies since only the eldest son of the family could inherit, the others wuld look for fortune somewhere else the men joined joint stock exchange companies where they pooled together their finances England Plants the Jamestown Seedling Virginia Company; ‘rights of Englishmen’Received charter form Kind James I for a settlement in the New World Mainly for gold and passage to the Indies Guaranteed to overseas settlers the same rights of English men Even if their not in the country This would be the start of resentment from colonists before the revolution because of lack of rights of Englishmen 1606 2 ships landed near Chesapeake Bay May 24, 1607 Jamestown was founded After many voyages to Jamestown Many of the colonists were unaccustomed to fending for themselves and also wasted time looking for gold John Smith; Powhatan John SmithYoung adventure took control of Jamestown in 1608 His rule was : â€Å"he who shall not work shall not ear In December1607 he was kidnapped by Powhatan and subjected to a mock execution Pocahontas saved him by putting her head on top of his Symbolism was to impress Smith with Powhatans power and Indians desire for peaceful relations with the colonist Pocahontas was a intermediary between the 2 side to preserve shaky peace and provide for foodstuff ‘starving time’=winter People would eat dogs, cats, mice, corpses, one man even murdered his wife and ate her Only 60 settlers survived 609-1610 Pocahontas married John Rolfe and ended the First Anglo-Powhatan War in 1614 The Second Anglo-Powhatan War in 1644 defeated the VirginiansVirginia: Child of Tobacco Economy ‘built on tobacco’ John Rolfe became the â€Å"father of tobacco† and saved the economy of Virginia 1612 he perfected the methods of raising and curing weeds The Virginians were so concentrated planting tobacco that they had to important some of their food It ruined the soil 1619 (year before pilgrims c ame on the Mayflower)a Dutch ship came and sold 20 Africans House of Burgesses epresentative self government born in Virginia in 1619 London Company authorized settlers to summon an assembly known as House of Burgesses Royal Colony (what went wrong? ) **1624, James I(detested tobacco and he distrusted the House of Burgesses) revoked charter of the bankrupt Virginia Company, making Virginia a royal colony under his control Maryland: Catholic Haven Lord Baltimore; Maryland 2nd plantation colony was founded in 1624 by Lord Baltimore who is of a prominent English Catholic family(4th colony to be planted) he created Maryland as refuge for his fellow CatholicsThe Catholics were rewarded with great manors and land Source(s) of tension between Catholics and Protestants? The Catholic were barons while the Protestants were planters There was resentment which then brewed into the rebellion near the end of the century Maryland prospered because of the tobacco In fear of being overwhelmed by the Catholics, they supported the Act of Toleration in 1649 Toleration of Christians Bad for Jews, atheists ‘freedom of worship’ (how tolerant? Limits? ) Dominion- Many colonies, forced upon them New England Confederation -4 colonies, joined willinglyColonzing the Carolinas Carolina was founded un 1670s Rice was main export North Carolina separated from South Carolin in 1712 Most independent minded and least aristocratic of the 13 Late Coming Georgia: The Buffer Colony last of the 13 Georgia was to serve as abuffer Protected the valuable Carolinas (sugar/rice) from Spaniards (FL) and French (LA) Name after George II Founded by high minded group of philanthropists Produced silk/wine Haven for sould imprisioned for depts. Plantation Colonies Note characteristics: Southern ColoniesMaryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia They were devoted to exporting commercial agricultural products Tobacco and rice Wide scattered plantations made building schools and churches expensive and difficult Most except for some in NC and GA perfered aristocratic atmospheres All permitted relisious toleration sometax supported Church of England Relied on indentured servants/slaves later on First slaves were not Africans, they were Native Americans Constructed on rivers, easily transported * â€Å"God hath sifted a nation that he might send Choice Grain into this Wilderness† — what does this mean?William Bradford pilgram leader2 Rhode Island is the most liberal of the 13 colonies Makers of America: The English (50-51) Compare demographics of N. and S: ie, indentured males vs. families North was extreme weather, steril soil South hotdiseases Crash crops tobacco, rice, cotton Puritans vs. Indians Review Metacom’s War 1675 Metacom (King Phillip by the English)was Massasoit’s son (chief when the pilgrams landed) forged an alliance and mounted a series of coordinated assaults on English billages throught New Engalnd 1676 the war end ed and 52 Puritan towns had been attacked 2 towns were destroyed entirely drastically reduced the number of colonoist Seeds of Colonial Unity and Independence New England Confederation (note the date) 1643, 4 New England colonies banded together to form the NE Confederation defense against foes or potentional foes Indians, Dutch, French Runaway servants also were the Confederation’s problem Each member only had 2 votes Exclusive Puritan club Why does Charles II provide charters to Rhode Island and Connecticut? What does this say about the relationship between the colonies (esp. Massachusetts) and England in the 17th century?Connecticut 1662 a sea to sea charter grant which legalized the squatter settlements 1663 Rhode Island received charter which gave kingly sanction to the most religious toleraent government to try and get more colonies of the King’s side Andros Promotes the First American Revolution Dominion of New England 1686 How is it different from New England C onfederation? It was imposed from London Embraced all New Engalnd and then included NY and East and West Jersey Aimed at bolstering colonial defence in the event war with the Indians What is its relationship to the Navigation Acts?Designed to promot urgently needed efficiency in the administration of the English Navigation Laws Laws reflected the intensifying colonial rivalries of the 17th centery Sought to stitch Engalnd’s overseas possessions more tightly to the motherland by throttling American trade with countries not ruled by England Caused lots of smuggling Why does the Dominion break up? Head of he Dominion was Sir Edmund Andros Military background Harsh, strict He generated much hostility by his open affiliation with the despised Church of England Colonist were outraged by noisy and Sabbath profaning soldiers He stopped town meetingRestrictions of church, school, press†¦ Taxed people without consent Enforced unpopular Navigation Laws, suppress smuggling 688-1689 colonists engineered the memorable Glourious (Bloddless) Revolution broke up because of the Glourious War in England Dethrouned Chaotlic James II and enthroned Protestean rulars of Netherlands William III and Mary Found him because he dressed as a human How does turning Massachusetts into a Royal Colony affect Puritan control of politics? Why do William and Mary of England do this? Turned into royal colony in 1691New charter and governer *****What is Salutary Neglect, why does it begin, and what were its limits? New monarchs relaxed their grip on colonial trade Period of salutary neglect Hands off approach Sort of taxation, didn’t really enforce it Friction with English and Swedish Neighbors & Dutch Residues in New York *Peter Stuyvesant Expedition in 1655 led Lost his leg soldiering in the West Indies Charles II and the founding of New York 1664 Charles II granted the area to his Brother Duke of York New Amsterdam rename New York Dutch legacyDutch peppered place names all ov er including Harlem, Brookyn, Hell Gate, Easter eggs, Santa, waffles, bowling, sleighing, skating, and Kolf (golf) Penn’s Holy Experiment in Pennsylvania; Quaker Pennsylvania and Its Neighbors Quakers Arose in England during mid 1600s Offensive to authorities, civil and religious No clergy Deep conviction, abhorred strife and warfare Refused military service Advocates of passive resistance Pacifist (some of the 1st abolitionists) William Penn 1681 he secured a grant of fertile land from the kingPennsylvania (Penn’s Woodland) Best advertised of all colonies Unlike others Penn’s inducements were truthful Liberal land policy William Penn & Pennsylvania Launched his own colony in 1681 Philadelphia (brotherly love in Greek) Penn bought land from the Indians including Chrief Tammany He was so fair that the Quakers were among them unarmed and even used them as babysitters Philadelphia Quakers and Indians; Quaker tolerance (others; religions; slavery) and the Scots Iris h Very civil Other non Quaker and non Europeans moved in andWas unusually liberal and had a representative assembly elected by land owners No tax supported state church Death penetly only for treason and murder Forced by king to deny Jews and Catholics boting rights Attarted rich mix of ethic groups Quakers were shwerd businessmen By 1700 Penn surpassed BA and MA’s population and wealth New Jersey started in 1664 The Middle Ways in the Middle Colonies Name the â€Å"middle colonies: NY, NJ DE, PN ‘bread colonies’ [bread-basket of the British colonies in America] PN NY NJ Heavy wheat economy (now it’s Midwest , Nebraska, Iowa†¦.Make the comparison: â€Å"Middle Colonies† in more than just name: land holding politics, industry Midway between New England and the southern Generally intermediate in size (except NY) Fewer industries than north no plantation like the south Religious tolerance Good economy â€Å"Most American† – explain: All rounded Made it too the big city on his own Very successful Ethnically mixed Different religions Most democratic – Europeans and Africans adapted to the New World, Natives adapted to newcomers – Rigid doctrines of Puritanism softened – All colonies remained tied to England Regional differences – Increasing importance of slave labor to southern way of life The Unhealthy Chesapeake – Nasty, brutish, shot life for ChesapeakeMalaria, dysentery and typhoid took lots of lives – Majority of immigrants were single men in their late teens and early twenties (most perished soon after arrival) – Weak family ties – Chesapeake eventually acquired immunity – More women, more families – End of 17th century, white population of Chesapeake grew based on birthrate The Tobacco Economy – Chesapeake immensely hospitable to tobacco cultivation Intense cultivation exhausted soil – This enormous production depressed pr ices, but colonial Chesapeake tobacco growers responded to falling prices in the familiar way of farmers: by planting still more acres to tobacco and bringing still more product to marketMore tobacco = More labor – Indians died too quickly – African slaves cost too much – England had may displaced farmers – â€Å"Indentured servants† – Virginia and Maryland â€Å"Headright† System = Encourage importation of servant workers – Masters reaped benefits of landownership – Investments in servants into vast holdings in real estate â€Å"White slaves† represented more than ? of all European immigrants to Virginia and Maryland in the 17th century – Indentured servants Hard but hopeful life. Freedom dues. Frustrated Freemen and Bacon’s Rebellion – Broken hopes of acquiring land – Hard to find single woman to marry – â€Å"having little interest in the country† and causing ‘tum ults at the election to the disturbance of his majesty’s peace† – William Berkeley (Virginian governor) – About 1,000 Virginians broke out of control in 1676 – Revolt led by Nathaniel Bacon (planter) *Rebels mainly frontiersmen – Fiercely resented Berkeley’s friendly policies toward Indians (whose thriving furtrade the governor monopolized * – Fell murderously upon Indians, friendly and hostile alike, chased Berkeley from Jamestown, and put the torch to the capital * – Berkeley hung over 20 rebels * – Distant English King could scarcely imagine depths of passion and fear that Bacon’s Rebellion excited in Virginia Ignited smoldering unhappiness of landless former servants Pitted frontiersmen against haughty gentry – Less troublesome laborers to toil in the restless tobacco kingdom – Eyes it on Africa. Colonial Slavery – 10 million Africans – 400,000 of them ended up in N. Am. †“ Africans brought to Jamestown 1619, but as late as 1670s, numbered only 2,000 in Virginia – 1680s – Rising wages in England shrank pool of penniless folk – By mid-1680s, black slaves outnumbered white servants among the plantation colonies new arrivals – 1698, Royal African Company lost monopoly on carrying slaves to colonies – Rhode Islanders rushed to cash in on lucrative slave trade – Blacks accounted for nearly half the population of Virginia by 1750 S.C. , outnumbered whites two to one – Death rates on ship as high as 20% – Few of earliest African immigrants gained freedom (some became slaveowners) – White colonist reacted remorselessly to racial threat – RACE – 1662, statues appeared that formally decreed the iron conditions of slavery for blacks – â€Å"Slave Codes† made blacks and their children the property (or â€Å"chattels†) for life of their white masters – Not e ven conversion to Christianity could qualify a slave for freedom – Slavery begun because of economic reasons Racial discrimination powerfully molded American slave system Africans in America – South, slave life especially severe – Climate hostile to health – Only fresh imports could sustain the slave population under conditions – Slave population rose – Few slave societies in history to perpetuate itself by natural reproduction (Chesapeake) – Native-born African-Americans contributed to growth of a stable and distinctive slave culture – Af. Ams. = Mixture of African and American elements of speech, religion and folkways – S.C. , unique language Gullah Blended with English and several African languages – Ringshout, West African religious dance performed by shuffling in a circle while answering a preacher’s shouts, was brought to colonial America, and contributed to development of jazz – Banjo and bong o drum also part of African contributions – Slave revolt erupted in NYC in 1712 that cost the lives of dozens of whites and caused execution of 21 blacks (burned at stake) – S. C. lacks along Stono River exploded in revolt in 1739 and tried to march to Spanish Florida (stopped by local militia) – No slave uprising in American history matched Bacon’s Rebellion Southern Society – As slavery spread, gaps in South’s social structure widened – Rough equality defined hierarchy of wealth and status in early 18th century – Owning gangs of slaves and vast domains of land, planters ruled region’s economy and monopolized political powerHouse of Burgesses Before Revolutionary War, 70% of leaders of Virginia legislature came from families established in VA before 1690 – the famed â€Å"first families of Virginia† or â€Å"FFVs† – Merchant planters Not gentlemanly Cultivated arts and accumulated distinguish ed libraries Businessmen (labored long hours) – One governor allowed servants to get drunk the next day if they would only lay off the liquor long enough to look after his guests at a celebration or the queen’s birthday in 1711 – Small farmers – Largest social group – Landless whites – Luckless former indentured servants – Indentured servants – Black slaves = basement of society Few cities sprouted in colonial South (professional class slow to emerge and revolved around great plantations) – Waterways provided principal means of transport – Roads hard to travel by The New England Family -New England settlers have good lives: 10 additional years of life expectancy, clean air and water, cool temperature. -New Englanders migrated as families. -Women wedded early (around 20) and had babies every 2 years until menopause. -Because women we’re dying from giving birth, many women began to fear pregnancy. -Children r eceived guidance from their parents and their grandparents.Strong family relationships. -Southern men frequently died young and left wives as widows. The southern colonies later allowed married women to retain separate title to their property. They were also given the right to inherit their husband’s estate. -New England lawmakers worried that recognizing women’s separate property rights would undercut the unity of married people. So, women gave up their property rights when married. -Women couldn’t vote, morally weaker than men. -New England authorities begin to restrain abusive spouses. -Divorce was rare and authorities encouraged couples to get back together.Life in the New England Towns -Puritans- concerned about whole community. -After proprietors received grants of land, they moved with their families and started a town. -Consisted of meeting house, houses, village green. -Each family received several parcels of land, a woodlot for fuel, and 2 tracts (for growing and pasturing) -A majority of adults knew how to read and write. -1636- Harvard is established/ -Regular town meetings. The Half-Way Covenant and the Salem Witch Trials -New form of sermon â€Å"jeremiad† -Individuals testify that they had received God’s grace and therefore deserved to be admitted to the church. 1662 Half-Way Covenant- the agreement between the church and its adherents to admit to baptism.Weakened the distinction between the â€Å"elect† and the others. -Puritans begin to accept anyone into their faith. -Teenage girls claimed to be bewitched by older women. This began the â€Å"witch hunt† -1692-lynching of 21 individuals and 2 dogs -Most accused witches came from families associated with Salem’s market economy -ended in 1693 when the governor (wife accused of witch-craft) prohibited any further trials and pardoned those convicted. The New England Way of Life -Weather was bad in New England. Soil and climate produced a dive rsified agriculture and industry. -Indians are well off.Recognized the right to use the land, but individual ownership was alien to them. -English brought pigs, horses, sheep, and cattle from Europe. -Colonists continually clearing forests. -New Englanders scattered. The Early Settlers’ Days and Ways -The majority of colonists were farmers. -Women on southern plantations and farms wove, cooked, cleaned, and cared for children. Men cleared land; fenced, planted and cropped; cut firewood; and butchered livestock. -Land was cheap. The Spanish were at Santa Fe in  1610. The French were at Quebec in  1608.The English were at Jamestown, Virginia in  1607. England's Imperial Stirrings King Henry VIII  broke with the Roman Catholic Church in the  1530s, launching the  English Protestant Reformation, and intensifying the rivalry with Catholic Spain. Elizabeth Energizes England In  1580,  Francis Drake  circumnavigated the globe, plundering and returning with his ship loaded with Spanish booty. He had a profit of about 4,600%. When the English fleet defeated the Spanish Armada, Spain's empirical dreams and fighting spirit had been weakened – helping to ensure the English's naval dominance over the North Atlantic.England on the Eve of an Empire Because an economic  depression  hit  England  in the later part of the 1500s and many people were left without homes, the stage was set for the establishment of an English beachhead in North America. England Plants the Jamestown Seedling In  1606, a joint-stock company, known as the  Virginia Company of London,  received a charter from  King James I of England  for a settlement in the New World. The company landed in Jamestown on  May 24, 1607. In  1608,  Captain John Smith  took over the town and forced the settlers into line.By  1609, of the 400 settlers who came to Virginia, only 60 survived the â€Å"starving winter† of 1609-1610. Cultural Clash in the Chesape ake Lord De La Warr  reached Jamestown in  1610  with supplies and military. He started the  First Anglo-Powhatan War. The Indians were again defeated in the  Second Anglo-Powhatan War  in  1644. By  1685, the English considered the Powhatan people to be extinct. Virginia: Child of Tobacco John Rolfe  married  Pocahontas  in  1614,  ending  the First Anglo-Powhatan War. In  1619, self-government was made in Virginia. The London Company authorized the settlers to summon an assembly, known as the  House of Burgesses.King James I didn't trust the House of Burgesses and so in  1624, he made Virginia a colony of England, directly under his control. Maryland: Catholic Haven Maryland  was formed in  1634  by  Lord Baltimore. Maryland was made for a refuge for the Catholics to escape the wrath of the Protestant English government. The  Act of Toleration, which was passed in  1649  by the local representative group in Maryland, granted tolerati on to all Christians. The West Indies: Way Station to mainland America By the mid-17th Century, England had secured its claim to several West Indian Islands. Sugar  was, by far, the major crop on the Indian Islands.To support the massive sugar crops, millions of African slaves were imported. By 1700, the number of black slaves to white settlers in the English West Indies by nearly 4 to 1. In order to control the large number of slaves, theBarbados Slave Code of 1661  denied  even the most fundamental rights to slaves. Colonizing the Carolinas Civil war plagued England in the 1640s. In  1707, the Savannah Indians decided to end their alliance with the Carolinians and migrate to the back country of Maryland and Pennsylvania, where a new colony founded by Quakers under  William Penn  promised better relations.Almost all of the Indians were killed in raids before they could depart – in  1710. Rice  became the primary export of the Carolinas. The Thirteen Original Colonies Name| Founded By| Year| Virginia| London Co. | 1607| New Hampshire| John Mason and Others| 1623| MassachusettsPlymouthMaine| PuritansSeparatistsF. Gorges| 162816201623| Maryland| Lord Baltimore| 1634| ConnecticutNew Haven| Mass. EmigrantsMass. Emigrants| 16351638| Rhode Island| R. Williams| 1636| Delaware| Swedes| 1638| N. Carolina| Virginians| 1653| New York| Duke of York| 1664| New Jersey| Berkeley and Carteret| 1664|Carolina| Eight Nobles| 1670| Pennsylvania| William Penn| 1681| Georgia| Oglethorpe and others| 1733| * France Finds a Foothold in Canada In  1598, the  Edict of Nantes  was issued by the crown of France. It granted limited religious freedom to French Protestants, and stopped religious wars between the Protestants and Catholics. In  1608, France established  Quebec. (Catholic)   The leading figure was  Samuel de Champlain,  an intrepid soldier and explorer whose energy and leadership earned him the title â€Å"Father of New France†. The government of New France (Canada) was under direct control of the king.The people did not elect any representative assemblies. New France Sets Out New France contained one valuable resource –  beaver. French Catholic missionaries, notably the  Jesuits, labored with much enthusiasm to convert the Indians to Christianity and to save them from the fur trappers. Antoine Cadillac- founded Detroit in  1701  to thwart English settlers pushing into the Ohio Valley. Robert de La Salle- explored the Mississippi and Gulf basin, naming it Louisiana. In order to block the Spanish on the Gulf of Mexico, the French planted several fortified posts in Mississippi and Louisiana.The French founded  New Orleans  in  1718. Illinois became France's garden empire of North America because much grain was produced there. The Clash of Empires The earliest battles among European power for control of North America, known to British colonists as  King William's War (1689-1697)  and  Q ueen Anne's War (1702-1713). Most of the battles were between the British colonists, the French, and the French ally Spain. The wars ended in  1713  with peace terms signed at  Utrecht. France and Spain were terribly beaten and Britain received French-populated Acadia and Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay.The British also won limited trading rights in Spanish America. The War of Jenkins's Ear started in  1739  between the British and Spaniards. This small battle became a war and became known as  King Georges's War in America. It ended in  1748  with a treaty that handed Louisbourg back to France, enraging the victorious New Englanders. George Washington Inaugurates War with France In  1754, George Washington was sent to Ohio Country to secure the land of the Virginians who had secured legal rights to 500,000 acres. His 150 Virginia militia killed the French leader, causing French reinforcements to come.The Virginians were forced to surrender on  July 4, 1754. In  1755, the British uprooted the French Acadians fearing a stab in the back, and scattered them as far as Louisiana. Global War and Colonial Disunity The  French and Indian War (Seven Years' War)  started in  1754. It was fought in America, Europe, the West Indies, the Philippines, Africa, and on the ocean. In Europe, the principal adversaries were Britain and Prussia on one side and France, Spain, Austria, and Russia on the other. The French wasted so many troops in Europe that they were unable to put enough forces into America.The  Albany Congress  met in  1754. Only 7 of 13 colony delegates showed up. It attempted to unite all of the colonies but the plan was hated by individual colonists and the London regime. Braddock's Blundering and Its Aftermath General Braddock  set out in  1755  with 2,000 men to capture  Fort Duquesne. His force was slaughtered by the much smaller French and Indian army. (Braddock's Blunder)   Due to this loss of troops, the whole fro ntier from Pennsylvania to North Carolina was left open to attack. George Washington, with only 300 men, tried to defend the area.In  1756, the British launched a  full-scale invasion of Canada. Pitt's Palms of Victory In  1757,  William Pitt  became the foremost leader in the London government. He was known as the â€Å"Great Commoner. †Ã‚   He attacked and captured  Louisbourg  in  1758. To lead the attack in the  Battle of Quebec  in  1759, Pitt chose  James Wolfe. The two opposing armies faced each other on the  Plains of Abraham, the British under Wolfe and the French under  Marquis de Montcalm. Montreal fell in  1760. The  Treaty of Paris (1763)  ended the battle and threw the French power off the continent of North America.Restless Colonists Intercolonial disunity  had been caused by enormous distances; geographical barriers; conflicting religions, from Catholics to Quakers; varied nationalities, from German to Irish; differing types of colonial governments; many boundary disputes; and the resentment of the crude back-country settlers against the aristocrats. Americans: A People of Destiny In  1763,  Ottawa chief,  Pontiac,  led several tribes, aided by a handful of French traders who remained in the region, in a violent campaign to drive the British out of the Ohio country.His warriors captured Detroit in the spring of that year and overran all but 3 British outposts west of the Appalachians. The British countered these attacks and eventually defeated the Indians. London government issued the  Proclamation of 1763. It prohibited settlement in the area beyond the Appalachians. (The Appalachian land was acquired after the British beat the Indians). It was made to prevent another bloody eruption between the settlers and Indians. Many colonists disregarded it. * The Deep Roots of Revolution Two ideas in particular had taken root in the minds of the American colonists by the mid 18th  century:   1.Rep ublicanism- a just society in which all citizens willingly subordinated their private, selfish interests to the common good. Both the stability of society and the authority of government thus depended on the virtue of the citizenry-its capacity for selflessness, self-sufficiency, and courage. 2. â€Å"Radical Whigs†, a group of British political commentators, made attacks on the use of patronage and bribes by the king's ministers. They warned citizens to be on guard for possible corruption. Mercantilism and Colonial Grievances Georgia was the only colony to be formed by Britain.The  Navigation Law of 1650  stated that all goods flowing to and from the colonies could only be transported in British vessels. It was aimed to hurt rival Dutch shippers. The Stamp Tax Uproar Due to the French and Indian War, Britain had a very large debt. In  1763,  Prime Minister George Grenville  ordered the British navy to begin strictly enforcing the  Navigation Laws. He also secured from Parliament the  Sugar Act of 1764, the first law ever passed by Parliament to raise tax revenue in the colonies for England. The Sugar Act increased the duty on foreign sugar imported from the West Indies.The  Quartering Act of 1765  required certain colonies to provide food and quarters for British troops. In  1765, George Grenville imposed a stamp tax on the colonies to raise revenues to support the new military force. This stamp tax, known as the  Stamp Act, mandated the use of stamped paper or the affixing of stamps, certifying payment of tax. Parliament Forced to Repeal the Stamp Act The  Stamp Act Congress of 1765  brought together in New York City 27 distinguished delegates from 9 colonies. The members drew up a statement of their rights and grievances and requested the king and Parliament to repeal the hated legislation.The meeting's ripples began to erode sectional suspicions (suspicions between the colonies), for it had brought together around the same table leaders from the different and rival colonies. It was one step towardsintercolonial unity. Nonimportation agreements  (agreements made to not import British goods)  were a stride toward unionism. The  Sons of Liberty  and  Daughters of Liberty  took the law into their own hands by enforcing the nonimportation agreements. The Stamp Act was repealed by Parliament in  1766. Parliament passed the  Declaratory Act, reaffirming its right to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever.The Townshend Tea Tax and the Boston Massacre In  1767, Parliament passed the  Townshend Acts. They put a light import tax on glass, white lead, paper, paint, and tea. British officials, faced with a breakdown of law and order, landed 2 regiments of troops in the colonies in  1768. On  March 5, 1770, a crowd of 60 townspeople attacked 10 redcoats and the redcoats opened fired on the civilians, killing/wounding 11 of them. The massacre was known as the  Boston Massacre. The Sediti ous Committees of Correspondence Lord North was forced to persuade Parliament to repeal the Townshend revenue duties.Samuel Adams- master propagandist and engineer of rebellion; formed the first local committee of correspondence in Massachusetts in  1772  (Sons of Liberty). Committees of Correspondance were created by the American colonies in order to maintain communication with one another. They were organized in the decade before the Revolution when communication between the colonies became essential. In March of  1773, the Virginia  House of Burgesses, the lower house of the Colony of Virginia, proposed that each colonial legislature appoint a standing committee for intercolonial correspondance.Within just a year, nearly all of the colonies had joined. Tea Parties at Boston and Elsewhere In  1773,  the  British East India Company  was overstocked with 17 million pounds of unsold tea. If the company collapsed, the London government would lose much money. Therefore, the London government gave the company a full monopoly of the tea sell in America. Fearing that it was trick to pay more taxes on tea, the Americans rejected the tea. When the ships arrived in the Boston harbor, the governor of Massachusetts,  Thomas Hutchinson, forced the citizens to allow the ships to unload their tea.On  December 16, 1773, a band of Bostonians, disguised as Indians, boarded the ships and dumped the tea into the sea. (Boston Tea Party) Parliament Passes the â€Å"Intolerable Acts† In  1774, Parliament punished the people of Massachusetts for their actions in the Boston Tea Party. Parliament passed laws, known as the  Intolerable Acts, which restricted colonists' rights. The laws made restrictions on town meetings, and stated that enforcing officials who killed colonists in the line of duty would be sent to Britain for trial (where it was assumed they would be acquitted of their charges). One such law was the  Boston Port Act.It closed the Boston harbor until damages were paid and order could be ensured. The  Quebec Act  was also passed in  1774, but was not apart of the Intolerable Acts. It gave Catholic French Canadians religious freedom and restored the French form of civil law; this law nullified many of the Western claims of the coast colonies by extending the boundaries of the province of Quebec to the Ohio River on the south and to the Mississippi River on the west. The Continental Congress and Bloodshed In  1774, the  1st Continental Congress  met in Philadelphia in order to redress colonial grievances over the Intolerable Acts.The 13 colonies, excluding Georgia, sent 55 men to the convention. (The 1st Continental Congress was not a legislative body, rather a consultative body, and convention rather than a congress. ) After 7 weeks of deliberation, the  1st Continental Congress  drew up several papers. The papers included a  Declaration of Rights  and solemn appeals to other British-American colon ies, to the king, and to the British people. The creation of  The Association  was the most important outcome of the Congress. It called for a complete  boycott  of British goods; nonimportation, nonexportation, and nonconsumption.In  April 1775, the British commander in Boston sent a detachment of troops to  Lexington. They were to seize provisions of colonial gunpowder and to capture the â€Å"rebel† ringleaders,  Samuel Adams  and  John Hancock. At Lexington, 8 Americans were shot and killed. This incident was labeled as the â€Å"Lexington Massacre. †Ã‚   When the British went on to Concord, they were met with American resistance and there were over 300 casualties and 70 deaths. Because of this, the British had a  war, rather than a rebellion on their hands. Imperial Strength and WeaknessesThe population of Britain was over 3 times as large as the population of America. Britain also had a much greater economic wealth and naval power. Unfortunate ly for the British, though, there was rebellion brewing in Ireland, and France, bitter from its recent defeat, was waiting for an opportunity to attack Britain. Britain was therefore forced to divert much of its military power and concentration away from the Americas. Britain's army in America had to operate under numerous difficulties; provisions were short and soldiers were treated brutally.American Pluses and Minuses Marquis de Lafayette- French who was made a major general in the colonial army at the age of 19; the â€Å"French Gamecock†; his services were invaluable in securing further aid from France. The  Articles of Confederation  was adopted in  1781. It was the first written constitution adopted by colonists. Due to the lack of metallic money in America, Continental Congress was forced to print â€Å"Continental† paper money. Within a short time, this money depreciated significantly and individual states were forced to print their own paper money.A Thin Line of Heroes At  Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, American men went without food for 3 days in the  winter  of  1777-1778. Baron von Steuben- German who helped to whip the America fighters into shape for fighting the British. Lord Dunmore- royal (British) governor of Virginia. In  1775, he issued a proclamation  promising freedom  for any enslaved black in Virginia who joined the British army. â€Å"Lord Dunmore's Ethiopian Regiment† Congress Drafts George Washington The Second Continental Congress selected  George Washington  to head the army besieging Boston.Bunker Hill and Hessian Hirelings From April 1775 to July 1776, the colonists were both affirming their loyalty to the king by sincerely voicing their desire to patch up difficulties while at the same time raising armies and killing redcoats. In May 1775, a tiny American force under  Ethan Allen  and  Benedict Arnold  captured the British garrisons at  Ticonderoga and Crown Point. There, a stor e of gunpowder and artillery was secured. In June 1775, the colonists captured  Bunker Hill. The British took it back with a large number of soldiers.In  July 1775, the Second Continental Congress adopted the â€Å"Olive Branch Petition†, which professed American loyalty to the king and begged to the king to stop further hostilities. The petition was rejected by the king. With the rejection, the Americans were forced to choose to fight to become independent or to submit to British rule and power. In August 1775, King George III proclaimed that the colonies were in rebellion. He then hired German  Hessians  to bring order to the colonies. The Abortive Conquest of Canada In October 1775, the  British burned Falmouth  (Portland), Maine.In the same month, colonists made an attack on Canada in hopes that it would close it off as a possible source for a British striking point. The attack failed whenGeneral Richard Montgomery  was killed. In January 1776, the  Britis h set fire to Norfolk. Thomas Paine Preaches Common Sense The Americans continued to  deny any intention of independence  because loyalty to the empire was deeply ingrained; many Americans continued to consider themselves apart of a transatlantic community in which the mother country of Britain played a leading role; colonial unity was poor; and open rebellion was dangerous.Thomas Paine  released a pamphlet called  Common Sense  in  1776. It argued that the colonies had outgrown any need for English domination and that they should be given independence. Paine and the Idea of â€Å"Republicanism† Thomas Paine called for the creation of a new kind of political society, specifically a  republic, where power flowed from the people themselves. Jefferson's Explanation of Independence On July 2, 1776,  Richard Henry Lee  of Virginia's  resolution of declaring independence was passed. It was the formal declaration of independence by the American colonies.Thomas Je fferson  was appointed to draft up the  Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence  was formally  approved  by Congress on  July 4, 1776. It was an explanation of everything the king had done to the Americans. Patriots and Loyalists During the War of Independence, the Loyalists were called â€Å"Tories† and the Patriots were called â€Å"Whigs. †Ã‚   Tory: â€Å"a thing whose head is in England, and its body in America, and its neck ought to be stretched. † The Loyalists made up 16% of the American population. Many people of education and wealth remained loyal  Ã‚  to England.Loyalists were most numerous where the  Anglican church  was strongest. The  Loyalists  were well entrenched in  New York City, Charleston, Quaker Pennsylvania,  and  New Jersey. They were least numerous in New England. The  Patriots  were numerous where  Presbyterianism and Congregationalism  flourished-mostly in New England. The Loyali st Exodus Before the Declaration of Independence, the Loyalists were treated relatively mild. After, though, they were hanged, imprisoned, and roughly handled. They Loyalists were forced to leave because the Patriots had to eliminate their weaknesses.General Washington at Bay The  British  concentrated  New York City  as a base of operation due to the fact that Boston was evacuated in March 1776. In  1776, General Washington and his men were overpowered by the British at the  Battle of Long Island. Washington and his men escaped to Manhattan Island. General William Howe  was General Washington's adversary. On  December 26, 1776, Washington surprised and captured  1,000 Hessians  who were sleeping. Burgoyne's Blundering Invasion London officials had an intricate scheme for capturing the vital  Hudson River valley in 1777.It would sever New England from the rest of the states and paralyze the American cause. The main invading force, lead by  General Burgoyne, w ould push down the Lake Champlain route from Canada. General Howe's  troops in New York, if needed, could advance up the Hudson River to meet Burgoyne near Albany. The 3rd  force was commanded by colonelBarry St. Leger, who would come in from the west by way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk Valley. General Burgoyne was forced to surrender his entire command at  Saratoga  on  October 17, 1777  to American general  Horatio Gates  (Burgoyne's Blunder).This win made it possible for the urgently needed  foreign aid from France. (Turning point in war. ) Strange French Bedfellows After the shooting at  Lexington  in April 1775, French secretly provided arms to the Americans. The British offered the Americans  home rule  after the Battle of Saratoga. The French didn't want Britain to regain its colonies for fear that Britain would seize the  sugar rich French West Indies. In order to stop this, the  French made an open alliance  with the Americans in  1778, o ffering all the British did with the exception of independence.The Colonial War Becomes a World War Spain and Holland became allies against Britain in  1779. The British decided to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate their strength in New York City. Blow and Counterblow General Benedict Arnold  turned traitor against the Americans in 1780. General Nathaniel Greene  succeeded in clearing most British troops out of Georgia and South Carolina. The Land Frontier and the Sea Frontier The  Treaty of Fort Stanwix- (1784) the first treaty between the United States and an Indian nation; signed with the Iroquois.George Rogers Clark- conceived the idea of capturing the British of the wild Illinois country in 1778-1779. John Paul Jones  is known as the father of the navy. He employed the tactic of privateering. Privateering- when privately owned and crewed vessels were authorized by a government during a wartime to attack and capture enemy vessels, men, cargo, etc; it diverted manpo wer from the main war effort; it brought in needed gold, harassed the enemy, and raised American morale by providing victories in a time when victories were few. Yorktown and the Final CurtainFrom 1780-1781, the U. S. government fell nearly bankrupt. British General Cornwallis  fell back to Chesapeake Bay at  Yorktown  to await seaborne supplies and reinforcements. This time in war was one of the few times when British naval superiority had been lacking. Admiral de Grasseoffered to join the Americans in an assault of Cornwallis via the sea. George Washington, along with  Rochambeau's army, and Admiral de Grasse cornered Cornwallis. He was forced to  surrender on October 19, 1781. Peace at Paris In 1782, a Whig ministry replaced the Tory regime of Lord North.Conditions of the Treaty of Paris of 1783: British formally recognized the independence of the United States. Florida is given to Spain. Britain granted generous boundaries, stretching to the Mississippi on the west, to the Great Lakes on the north, and to Spanish Florida on the south. Yankees were to retain a share in the priceless fisheries of Newfoundland. The Loyalists were to no longer be prosecuted. Congress was to recommend to the state legislatures that confiscated Loyalist property be restored. The states vowed to put no lawful obstacles in the way of Loyalist property collection.Ben Franklin,  John Adams, and  John Jay  negotiated the peace terms with Britain. The Pursuit of Equality The Continental Army officers formed an exclusive hereditary order called the  Society of the Cincinnati. Virginia Statue for Religious Freedom-  created in  1786  by Thomas Jefferson and his co-reformers; stated that religion should not be imposed on anybody and that each person decided his/her own faith. The Philadelphia  Quakers  in  1775  founded the first  anti-slavery society. The 1st Continental Congress called for the complete  abolition of the slave trade  in  1774.Seve ral northern states went further and either abolished slavery altogether or provided the gradual emancipation of slaves. No states south of Pennsylvania abolished slavery. Constitution Making in the States The 2nd Continental Congress called upon the colonies in  1776  to draft  new constitutions. Massachusetts called a special convention to draft its constitution and then submitted the final draft to the people. As  written  documents, the state constitutions were intended to represent a  fundamental law, superior to the short-lived impulses of ordinary legislation.In the Revolutionary era, the capitals of New Hampshire, New York, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia were all moved westward. Economic Crosscurrents Economic democracy preceded political democracy. Due to the independence from Britain, the United States had to make everything on its own which it no longer imported from Britain. Many Americans were poor because the economy was so bad. Creat ing a Confederation Shortly before declaring independence in 1776, the 2nd  Continental Congress appointed a committee to draft a written constitution for the new nation.The finished product was the  Articles of Confederation. It was  adopted  by Congress in  1777  and it convinced France that America had a genuine government in the making. The Articles of Confederation wasn't  ratified by all 13 colonies until 1781. The Articles of Confederation: America's First Constitution The 13 colonies were joined together for joint action in dealing with common problems such as foreign affairs. Congress had 2 major handicaps: It had no power to regulate commerce, and this loophole left the states free to establish conflictingly laws regarding tariffs and navigation.Congress couldn't enforce its tax collection program. The states were NOT required to pay the government taxes, they were merely asked. Landmarks in Land Laws Land Ordinance of 1785- stated that the acreage of the Old Northwest should be sold and the proceeds should be used to help pay off the national debt. Northwest Ordinance of 1787- a uniform national land policy; created the Northwest Territories and gave the land to the government, the land could then be purchased by individuals; when a territory had 60,000 people, it might be admitted by Congress as a state, with all the privileges of the 13 other states.The World's Ugly Duckling Britain declined to make any commercial treaty with the colonies or to repeal its Navigation Laws. Lord Sheffield  argued in his pamphlet that Britain could win back America's trade. The  British remained in the Americas  where they maintained their fur trade with the Indians. The American states did not honor the treaty of peace in regard to debts and Loyalists. The British stayed primarily to keep the Indians on the side of the British so to defend against future attacks on Canada by the Americans. Spain was openly unfriendly to the Americans.It closed of f the Mississippi river to commerce in  1784. The Horrid Specter of Anarchy Shay's Rebellion- in western Massachusetts in  1786; when impoverished back-country farmers, who were losing their farms through mortgage foreclosures and tax delinquencies, attempted to enforce their demands of cheap paper money, lighter taxes, and a suspension of property takeovers; led by  Captain Daniel Shays. The uprising was crushed but it left fear in the propertied class of mobs. A Convention of â€Å"Demigods† In  1786, Virginia called for a  convention at Annapolis, Maryland.There,  Alexander Hamilton  saved the convention from collapsing – delegates from only 5 states showed up. He called upon Congress to summon a convention to meet in Philadelphia the next year, not to deal with just commerce, but to  fix then entire fabric of the Articles of Confederation. Alexander Hamilton  was an advocate of a super-powerful central government. On  May 25, 1787, 55 representa tives from all of the states except for Rhode Island were sent to Philadelphia to talk of the government in the future of the country. (Constitutional Convention)   George Washington was elected as the leader. Patriots in PhiladelphiaThe delegates hoped to save the revolutionary idealism and make it into a strong political structure. Hammering Out a Bundle of Compromises Some of the delegates decided they would  scrap  the old Articles of Confederation, contradicting instructions from Congress to revise it. The â€Å"large-state plan† was proposed by Virginia and was first pushed forward as the framework of the Constitution. It said that the arrangement in Congress should be based upon a state's population. New Jersey presented the â€Å"small-state plan. †Ã‚   It centered on equal representation in Congress without regards to a state's size or population.The â€Å"Great Compromise† of the convention was hammered out and finally agreed upon. It called for representation by population in the  House of Representatives, and equal representation in the  Senate. Each state would have 2 senators. The new  Constitution  also called for a President. Because of arguments over if the slaves would count towards the general population of the state, the â€Å"three-fifths compromise† was created. The new Constitution also called for the  end of the slave trade by the end of 1807. All new state constitutions except Georgia's forbade overseas slave trade.Rhode Island was not present at the Constitutional Convention. Safeguards for Conservatism The members of the Constitutional Convention agreed economically-demanded sound money and the protection of private property; and politically-favored a stronger government with 3 branches and with checks and balances among them. The Clash of Federalists and Anti-federalists The Anti-federalists were led by  Samuel Adams,  Patrick Henry, and  Richard Henry Lee. The followers consisted of states' rights devotees, back country dwellers, and one-horse farmers – in general, the poorest class.Federalists were led by  George Washington  and  Benjamin Franklin. Most of the Federalists lived in the settled areas along the seaboard. Overall, they were wealthier than the Anti-federalists, more educated, and better organized. They also controlled the press. The Great Debate in the States Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Maryland, South Carolina, and New Hampshire were the first 9 states to sign the Constitution. Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island were the only states to not sign it. (4 Laggard States)The Four Laggard States Virginia, New York, and North Carolina all ratified the Constitution before it was put into effect. Rhode Island was the last state to ratify it and it did so only after the new government had been in operation for a few months. These 4 states did not ratify the Constitution because the y wanted to but because they had to. They could not safely exist outside the fold. A Conservative Triumph The architects of the Constitution contented that every branch-executive, judiciary, and legislative-effectively represented the people.By imbedding the principle of self-rule in a self-limiting system of checks and balances among these 3 branches, the Constitution settled the conflicting doctrines of liberty and order. * Washington for President George Washington was unanimously elected as President by the Electoral College in  1789. He took the oath of office on April 30, 1789. He established the cabinet. At first,  Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson,  Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton, and  Secretary of War Henry Knox  served under Washington. Bill of Rights James Madison  wrote the  Bill of Rights  and got them passed by Congress in  1791.The  Judiciary Act of 1789  created the Supreme Court, with a chief justice and five associates, as well as federal district and circuit courts, and established the office of attorney general. John Jay  became the first Chief Justice. Hamilton Revives the Corpse of Public Credit In order to create a thriving federal government,  Alexander Hamilton  set out to create a plan to shape the policies of the administration in such a way as to favor the wealthier groups. These wealthier groups would then gratefully lend their money and political support to the government. The wealth in the government would then trickle down through society.In this plan, Hamilton persuaded Congress to fund the entire national debt at par, meaning that the federal government would pay off its debts at face value plus accumulated interest. This would strengthen the national credit by creating public confidence in the small Treasury department. He then convinced Congress to take on the states' debts, which would create confidence in the government by the states. States with large debts, like Massachusetts, were delighted with Hamilton's proposal, but states with small debts, like Virginia, did not want the government to assume state ebts. Virginia did, however, want the forthcoming federal district, the District of Columbia, which would bring commerce and prestige. So Virginia made a deal with the government:   the government would assume state debts if the District of Columbia was placed on the Potomac River. The deal was passed by Congress in  1790. Customs, Duties, and Excise Taxes One of Hamilton's objectives was to keep a  national debt, believing that the more creditors to whom the government owed money, the more people there would be with a personal stake in the success of the government.In this objective, he expected  tariff revenues  to pay interest on the huge debt and run the government. The first tariff law, which imposed a low tax of 8% on the value of imports, was passed by Congress in  1789. Its purpose was to create revenue and to create a small protective wall around small industries. He passed additional internal revenue and, in  1791, convinced Congress to pass an  excise tax  on a few domestic items, notably whiskey. Hamilton Battles Jefferson for a Bank Alexander Hamilton proposed a  Bank of the United States  that could print paper money and thus provide a stable national currency.The national bank would also be place where the Treasury could deposit monies. Thomas Jefferson strongly opposed the Bank stating it was unconstitutional. He felt that the states had the right to manage their own money. Most of the opposition came from the south and most of the support came from the north. Hamilton prevailed and the 1st  Bank of the United States was created in  1791. Its charter lasted for 20 years and was located in Philadelphia. Mutinous Moonshiners in Pennsylvania The  Whiskey Rebellion  in Pennsylvania in  1794  was lead by distillers who strongly opposed the 1791 excise tax on whiskey.The rebellion was ended when President Washington sent in federal troops. Although the troops faced no opposition, a strong message was sent by the government stating that it would enforce the law. The Emergence of Political Parties Political parties had not existed in America when George Washington took office. What was once a personal feud between Thomas Jefferson and Alexander Hamilton had developed into a full-blown and bitter political rivalry. In the 1790s, Jefferson and Madison organized their opposition to the Hamiltonian program but confined it to Congress.In due time, this organized opposition grew and the  two-party system  emerged. The Impact of the French Rebellion When Washington's first administration had ended in 1793, a formation of two political groups had ensued:   Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans  and  Hamilton Federalists. The  French Revolution  started in  1789. It began peacefully but entered a violent phase when France declared war on Austria in 1792. Things sta rted to get worse when King Louis XVI was beheaded in 1793, the church was attacked, and the head-rolling Reign of Terror was begun.At first, the Federalists supported the revolution  but that view suddenly changed when the attitude of the revolution changed. Washington's Neutrality Proclamation Jeffersonian Democratic-Republicans wanted to get into the  French and British War  to fight  for  France. The Federalists were  opposed. Washington issued the  Neutrality Proclamation of 1793  stating the country's neutrality from the Britain-France war. He was backed by Hamilton. Embroilments with Britain For years, the British had retained the frontier posts on U. S. soil, all in defiance of the peace treaty of 1783.The London government did not want to abandon the valuable fur trade in the Great Lakes region, and British agents openly sold firearms to the  Miami Confederacy, an alliance of 8 Indian nations who terrorized Americans. The Jeffersonians felt that American s hould again fight Britain in defense of America's liberties. The Federalists opposed this action because Hamilton's hopes for economic development depended on trade with Britain. Jay's Treaty and Washington's Farewell In a last attempt to avoid war, President Washington sent Chief Justice  John Jay  to London in  1794  to negotiate.Opposed by Democratic-Republicans, Jay hammered out a treaty,  Jay's Treaty, in which the British promised to evacuate the chain of posts on U. S. soil and pay for damages for the seizures of American ships. Britain stopped short of pledging anything about future maritime seizures or about supplying arms to Indians. The treaty also called for the U. S. to continue to pay the debts owed to British merchants on pre-Revolutionary War accounts. Jay's Treaty caused Spain, which feared an Anglo-American alliance, to strike a deal with the U. S.In  Pinckney's Treaty of 1795  with Spain, Spain granted the Americans free navigation of the Mississippi River and the large disputed territory north of Florida. In his Farewell Address to the nation, Washington urged against permanent alliances. He left office in  1797. John Adams Becomes President John Adams  beat Thomas Jefferson to become to the  2nd  President in 1797. Hamilton became the leader of the  Federalist Party, known as the â€Å"High Federalists. † Unofficial Fighting with France France was upset with Jay's Treaty and it started capturing American

Brooklyn and The Translator

In Brooklyn and translator novels, we see many different forms of family themes. The idea of ​​going home, leaving home, returning home is a very skilled focus of this article. In addition, the concept of family means that each character has different things, and how the problems such as immigrants / immigrants, asylum and return home play a role in the story. From Irish rain to lively New York City, or western Sudan to Chad, people show nationalistic ideas and purposes of existence. If the polygon index classifies Brooklyn as city_district, addr: city = Brooklyn. Brooklyn can, of course, refer to the city (Brooklyn, Connecticut) or the community (Brooklyn, Jacksonville), and libpostal can handle that kind of disambiguation from contextual words, but it does it It should not be said that the exchange method refers to the same Brooklyn. Cities and other place names sometimes contain abbreviations as they are written, but they are not written in OSM. In large cities such as Fort Lauderdale, there are one or two addresses of addresses. City = Fort Lauderdale, but in small cities such as Fort Walton Beach this rarely happens. In the early version of libpostal, the names of the training data were randomly omitted, but at 0, we started the same thing for OSM's place name so the parser looks like Fort = Ft, Saint = You should be able to handle the most common variants. St etc. In Brooklyn and translator novels, we see many different forms of family themes. The idea of ​​going home, leaving home, returning home is a very skilled focus of this article. In addition, the concept of family means that each character has different things, and how the problems such as immigrants / immigrants, asylum and return home play a role in the story. - Getting to start using Lexus and olive trees is not only a good book's title but also a metaphor of this book. The title Lexus is a way that everyone in the world wants the best products. Just to get newer an d better products. If someone joins the parade and others want it, it will be a competition that no one notices. On the other hand, olive trees are regarded as small towns. In terms of Smith's interest, Brooklyn's A Tree Grows sold over 4,000,000 copies. It has been translated into 16 languages ​​and has become a movie. Prior to publishing the book she offered to sell it to Hollywood for $ 5,000, and was rejected. Because of its success, this movie offers a wonderful novel by A Tree Grows from Brooklyn. It associates her own childhood experience with over 4 million viewers. Enduring all the difficulties in the novel, a ruthless tree is the main symbol of Nolans and all other families suffering over time, facing money issues, immorality, responsibility and freedom . Finally Nolans crossed the trees, but the roots were permanently embedded in them.

Turning Point of My Life Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Turning Point of My Life - Essay Example Even though I didn't lose consciousness, I had still sustained a head injury that left me laid up, perplexed and disoriented for months of partial disability. At some point in the first few months of confinement, my senses were all skewed. I had a blurry vision and sensitivity to light that always keep the blinds drawn. Even music made me dizzy and my brain can't seem to process the sounds into meaningful patterns in a phone conversation. And the worse, I couldn't taste my food nor smell my two-year-old daughter's fragrant hair after being washed. Other senses that I had taken for granted in my entire life became strangers, and I missed them. Because of the accident, I had been denied the comfort of some keen companions - the written and spoken words, and my sense of belonging. I also lost my identity, having to spend days in bed unable to care for my daughter. In just one sudden moment, sense of place, sense of purpose, sense of safety, and sense of peace were all gone. The disconcerting side effects lasted for a few months and changed my life in ways I may perhaps hardly have imagined. Shame overcame me not being able to speak fluently and embarrassed of the condition that I can't go farther than my own backyard. During my senseless period, I had asked God why me, why this, why now I have truly come to believe tha

Production styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Production styles - Essay Example The late 1950s and early 1960s witnessed shifts in these production styles. With the gradual emergence of rock and roll in the late 1950s and early 1960s there was a corresponding loosening of cultural standards. In this way the music of this period increasingly incorporated sexual themes and innuendos. In terms of instrumentation, production styles increasingly came to incorporate guitars as the primary carrier of rhythm and melody. ‘Down in Mexico’. This song emerged at a transitional time for music. With 1950s style productions gradually being phased out for 1960s modes of production. In this way this song retains the 1950s instrumentation style, with the use of brass instruments as the major production method. Still, guitar and bass are incorporated to an increasing extent in this track. Perhaps a more notable element of this track is the increasing emphasis its places on darker themes. While the track retains much of the 1950s cultural standards, there is a distinct shift in tone from the light-hearted naivetà © that was reminiscent of the 50s, to the 1960s increasing willingness to incorporate darker and more challenging themes. landscape in the 1950s and 1960s. From an overarching perspective, it appears that rock music became more homogenized in the 1960s, although the difference depends on what categories one uses. The 1950s witnessed a disparate array of music styles. Rhythm and blues, country, doo-wop, jazz, and soul music also existed as major styles during this period. In this way there was considerable disparity in terms of the popular music landscape, as a dominant music genre had not yet emerged. As the 1960s occurred many of these disparate music styles merged under singular genres. For instance, rhythm and blues increasingly became associated with rock music. Additionally, rock music incorporated many influences from country music. In this

Founding Fathers Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Founding Fathers - Essay Example These visionaries drafted a document that served as an inspiration for democracies worldwide. The founders were keen in ensuring that the government that would take over would be defined by liberties of individuals and the quest of happiness for its citizens who will be accommodated by the government and its systems (Mason and Rauchut, 2008). This is to say that the founders intended to form a government, whose sole purpose was to ensure freedom and prosperity of its citizens. They understood that power came with consequence and that it could be corrupted limiting the liberty envisioned, as is evident in the governments nowadays. This can be traced back to the founding fathers hypothesis that there is a correlation between personal liberties and expansion in the federal government that is negative. Though this growth was viewed suspiciously by the founding fathers, it was inevitable since the society is dynamic necessitating governance changes and growth. Even though it may have a de trimental effect on liberty, growth of the federal government since the time of the founding has been necessitated because conditions today demand that government grow to meet our needs, since governance needs change over time. The idea of government is based on the principle of servitude, in that it is created to serve the people.

The Great Los Angeles Earthquake Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Great Los Angeles Earthquake - Essay Example enter of the earthquake was around twenty five (25) miles north of Los Angeles and caused considerable damage to the city in terms of life and property of the citizens of Los Angeles. The movie appears to center greatly upon the fact that city officials chose to ignore the warnings that were given by seismologist Dr. Clark Winslow. The movie chooses to stress greatly upon the fact that city officials gave more importance to the calm of the city than to the very life of the city itself. For instance, one of the few areas where the movie reaches its climax is when the city officials finally realize that Dr. Clark Winslow’s warnings were legitimate and begin to advise the citizens of Los Angeles to begin taking immediate precautionary measures. However, as the movie shows, the time to take precautionary measures has passed and the earthquake strikes. The movie stands greatly upon this political intervention and ignorance of the city officials and chooses to use this as the main theme and plot. The movie also establishes itself upon the fact that while Dr. Clark Winslow’s warning was based on a fault line that was located around the Los Angeles area, th e tremors that set the city officials on alert were those that came from a lesser well known fault line near the city. However, leaving behind the main plot, the movie focuses on a number of subplots based upon a number of events that happened to the real people who got trapped in the earthquake and struggled to survive. About twenty thousand (20,000) lives were lost because of The Big One. The movie follows the lives of a few of these people and shows them as they try to resist the damage of the earthquake from trapping them and taking their lives. There is although a certain element of exaggeration in the movie. It appears that the creators of the movie chose to go along with the idea of creating the subplots for the movie out of the people who suffered series of events that could be commercially viable for the

Models and Frame Works for Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Models and Frame Works for Nursing - Essay Example The medic using this method should acknowledge that change could happen anytime (Baker,P.2000). They should also know that everyone what is good for them. The Tidal method should take place in three different levels which are the self-domain, world domain and the others domain. Self domain- In this level people are made to feel and identify with their experiences. The domain aims at making the patient feel more secure. The medic helps the patient make a Security Plan. World domain- This is where history is held. The person needs to be understood. The person taking the patient through this process asks questions about the past and reveals their meaning. The medic may also identify what needs to be done for efficient recovery. Other domain- This is a representation of the various relationship the person has. The person gets support from different people. The friend and family may do so. The person may also get financial advice among many others. The main aim of this domain or process i s to help the person live an effective ordinary life. The Tidal Method also uses the metaphor as mentioned earlier. The metaphor mostly used is that of the water. It explains that health is fluid in nature it is never stable. The water also describes how people can become emotionally, physically and spiritually unstable. This metaphor may help the doctor help the patient heal. The metaphor shows that problems do not last forever; they will change as time goes by ( Baker,P.2000). For care to be administered effectively, the person giving the care should realise that life changes and the nature of people to change too. The Tidal model likens experiences to ‘storms in the sea or piracy’ and says that when one is able to heal they are ‘put to sea’. The Tidal model has three group processes; 1. Recovery group- The main aim of this group is to help the person have a good self-esteem. This group makes them realise that they can help others in the society even if t hey were distressed. 2. Solution groups- This group helps the people to explore and share with others their experiences to get solutions for their own lives. 3. Information groups- This group helps the mental patients know of what they are going through. It helps them to know the kind of medication they are using, legal issues among others. Nursing process The patient had the following nursing problems; Sever headache and stomach ache, lack of appetite, he stopped caring about his personal hygiene, he developed unctrollable fear that he would be ran over by a car, he became very antisocial and he became very violent. In this paper, I will look at the two problems that are headache and loss of appetite. For the problems named above the patent should try to relax. This is because the problems could be because of anxiety or distress. Using the Tidal model of nursing, the patient should understand that this problem will last forever and they should take it upon themselves to solve it. T he practitioner should put into practice the three main domains. In the self-domain, the practitioner should make the patient identify with their experience or problem. In the world domain, the practitioner should find out when the problem started and how it has grown to its current state. These questions help him or her identify with the

Miss Representation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Miss Representation - Essay Example In addition to this, only 16% are writers, directors, producers, cinematographers and editors. Patriarchy has played a big role about women representation. This paper is going to analyze the power of the media. The paper further analyzes the effects of the negative identity created by the media on the female fraternity hence affecting their roles in the society. The media has been used to portray a negative effect about women and this has further influenced their roles and positions in the world. This is because you can’t be what you can’t see. ‘The media is the message and the messenger’ these were the opening remarks in this documentary by Pat Mitchell who is the president and CEO of Paley Center for Media. The author of The Macho Paradox Jackson Katz argues that people learn a lot from the media that in any other source. On the other hand Jim Steyer the CEO of Common sense Media argues that the media is delivering the content that is shaping our society. Even though women make 51% of the total US population the number that makes it to elite positions in the US is very minimal. The media is to blame for this. The media makes and delivers the news and for this reason most of the things we watch and see is as a result of the trends liked by the media. The media has portrayed the males as dominant over the females. Patriarchy is evident and the female identity has been blurred. Nude pictures are used all over as a way of attraction. The director of this film reveals that despite the 51% female population only 1 7 comprises the congress. To prove that patriarchy is evident the first woman made it in the congress during the 2010 mid-term elections since 1979. Most of the youths are spending most of their times in the media especially through the social sites and they learn a lot from the media which shapes their lives. More especially, the girls are getting the message from a tender age just by watching

Coke vs Pepsi strategy Essay Example for Free

Coke vs Pepsi strategy Essay Coke v. Pepsi – 5 Forces Analysis Industry concentrate produces High intensity (depends on price/advertising cost/ high number of substitutes(low calorie drinks/no carb drinks/ not carbonated drinks like orange juice) Pepsi products /Coke products New Entrants (barriers/rivalry) High Intensity-Brand recognition dominant market/ patents on style and colors Network relationships high cost of entry established such as distribution, warehouse, bottlers, and shelf-location high marketing costs Coke dominance on international market makes it hard for Pepsi to enter international markets where Coke is dominant (Mexico) Suppliers (Bargaining Power of Supplier) Medium intensity- Coke and Pepsi can and do renegotiate contracts with bottlers on prices, marketing, distribution territories, and etc. High intensity- for new entrants because the bottlers determine price of product (price takers), shelf- place is determined by retailer and less price discount control. There is a small number of important suppliers since Coke and Pepsi supported suppliers to buy other smaller suppliers to keep up with their needs. Buyers (Bargaining Power of Buyers) High Intensity- due to the high number of substitutes, health concerns, and few key buyers (fountain outlets/vending machines) E.g.) Coke and Pepsi battled for the right to sign a contract with fast food restaurants like Burger King. Substitutes ( threat of substitutes) Medium Intensity- high number of substitutes(low calorie drinks/no carb drinks/ not carbonated drinks like Orange juice /ice tea/ flavored water/etc. Low intensity – competition among other pop drink because it’s based on brand recognition.

Aspects of Health: Contribution to Wellness

Aspects of Health: Contribution to Wellness Charlene Mifsud Health is composed of 5 aspects: social health, physical health, mental health, economical health, spiritual health. Discuss how these five aspects of health contribute towards wellness. Wellness and health do not have the same meaning since health is divided into 5 different components which are: physical health, mental health, spiritual health, economical health and social health, while wellness mostly emphasizes a person’s responsibility for well-being by practicing health-promotion and their life style behaviours. When one is not healthy it does not necessarily mean that the person has a disease or has a pathogen since health as introduced above is divided into different categories. Wellness is when the five different categories of health are balanced and are all positive so if one of the components starts to get negative, we can say the person is starting to feel unwell due to lack of a certain health component. The following discussion will explain each aspect and my own personal opinion is given in each case. Physical health: Physical health concerns the whole physical parts of the human body. One must keep in control of what they eat by following a balanced diet, exercise regularly, not smoke, no drug use, drink water, sleep well and be hygienic. I personally think that these factors will help the well-being of a person and prevent and harm being caused to the physical body. Diseases may arise if one or more of these factors are not followed such as coronary artery disease, hypertension, diabetes, hypercholesterolemia, myocardial infarction, cancers (due to drugs, alcohol or smoking) and countless others. Some may argue that if a person is at a healthy weight they can eat junk food and others might say that if a person is stressed let them smoke since it relaxes them. One needs to be educated about these deadly vices at an early age as to prevent from starting because once a person starts one of these critical habits it’s difficult to stop and may lead to serious damages to body. Also some may arg ue that children should not be taught such things as it may influence them by trying them out since curiosity overcomes us but some might say that it is their decision and the future is in their hands so let them decide what they want in life. Finally in my opinion I would make people aware of what causes illnesses and these will inspire them to maintain a healthy physical body and reduce any risk factors. Those who argue against it, their opinion is accepted but if any future complications arise stopping these unhealthy habits may be even more difficult once taken after long periods of time. Mental health In order to be mentally healthy one must feel comfortable about themselves and raise their self esteem by accepting themselves as they are. Mixing with people and making friends help to stabilize a person and keep their mind positive which will help by avoiding falling into depression of solitude. Economical problems such as being in debt may lead a person to feel melancholic: ‘’More than a quarter of people with mental health problems were in debt.’’(Brian Krans, October 3rd, 2013). If a person is bullied seek immediate help before the victim starts to lose self esteem and may start feeling suicidal. Also if for any reason one may feel stressful, finding ways to calm oneself such as yoga, healthy food, exercise or even join a support group may help before matters go downhill since stress may cause further problems concerning physical health. Some may oppose my personal opinion by saying that if a person does not want to seek help from other professionals l et them be it is their life. Also some may say if a person would rather stay alone than mix with people it would be better for everyone so that person will not pass on their depression to others which most probably this would not happen. Letting people who are in a bad state stay the way they are without convincing them to change will have an impact on the people around them and care for them. Help people who are in need of support as to prevent future harm to themselves and to the people around them. Spiritual health Spiritual health does not necessarily mean believing in a higher being, but it also includes to feel by loving, being compassionate and forgiving. I agree that as human beings we have the capability to love and be compassionate with our partner and this makes one feel spiritually at ease. Forgiveness though must be earned and I personally think that if one asks for forgiveness they mean it and believe that what they have done was wrong. Others may say that everyone deserves forgiveness even if the person does not ask for forgiveness from their victim. These three values assist a person by gaining ethical intelligence, give the true meaning of life, make decisions easier to take, and appreciate all that is around us. Different people from all around the world have different religious beliefs and others have none. Involving oneself by visiting the specific place of worship for a certain religion will make one feel at peace in mind and spirit. I personally will not put my faith on a hig her being and don’t feel spiritually unhealthy. Some may agree with my thoughts and might not believe in superior power but others with different religions do and we must all respect each other. Most sick people pray to their god/s for health or a miracle and if these people did not have faith in such higher beings they would feel hopeless. Faith gives one hope by feeling spiritually at ease when praising their god/s and also when facing difficulties in life. Social health Being socially healthy means that one should get involved in society whether it’s a hometown or school, getting to know people around us and feel accepted. As human beings we crave acceptance from peers so everyone tries to go along with what the society as a whole is doing. Usually the outcasts of the social groups tend to make small groups of their own and find acceptance with other people with whom they find similarities with. Volunteering in a group or event will give one satisfaction that no other paying job will, such as helping the elderly and being appreciated. In my opinion I do not feel that I have to be accepted in society as a whole so instead I find comfort by needing to be accepted by my family and friends. We do not all have to click and have the same opinions but acceptance of who we are is enough. Some may argue that in order to be accepted in society one must follow the standard lifestyle and any uniqueness will not be tolerated. For example, the typical sexu al orientation is heterosexual, so in some countries around the world homosexuals are not accepted in the society and are labelled as odd beings which may drive these innocent victims mad so they try to be ‘normal’ while others rebel by forming gay right groups. Society has an immense impact on our lives and we all just want to be accepted by someone and be loved the way we are without judgements. Economical health Economical health is earned when people are young by receiving a good education for a future stable job. Continuing education such as attending university will increase the amount of pay in their job which will help the person by being financially stable. Finding a good job that makes the person happy will guarantee economical health if and only if the person does not abuse with the earned money. One must save up earned money and spent on essential equipment such as a home, a car, clothes, food, etc. In my opinion education is a necessity, where one may be grateful for it in the future since nowadays money is requested everywhere. Continuing education may be the hard part as some teenagers might be hard headed and start thinking of getting a simple job and start earning money on their own instead of studying further and get a career later on in life. Personally I would demonstrate on how easier life would be if they had to continue their education. Some may oppose by saying that if i t were not for some teens to be working such simple jobs their family may fall apart since the teenager is the breadwinner of the family. Some may even start a family at a young age and no other option would be possible except to work a simple job and earn enough money. One must be careful to choose the right choices offered in life and seek help when needed, professional if need be. Earning money is not enough one must spend money wisely and not abuse by gambling or buying drugs/alcohol or purchase unnecessary objects. Spending earned money on the right objects in life will give one good economical health. In conclusion to all this, one must try to balance out the five discussed topics above in order to maintain wellness and a healthy lifestyle to prolong life. If one has a good physical health, mentally at peace with no stressors, spiritual beliefs where one may keep hopeful, a good social status and fine economical health this will result by the person being well and healthy. Basically all in all the wellness of the person depends on the different health aspects by keeping them balanced and positive. References Edlin G., Goltanty E., McCormack Brown K., (1932), Health and wellness. (6th ed.). USA: Jones and Bartlett Publishers Krans B., How debt affects your mental health, retrieved January 12th 2013, http://www.healthline.com/health-news/mental-how-debt-affects-mental-health-100313 Strout K., Wellness promotion and the institute of medicine’s future of nursing report: Are nurses ready?, retrieved: January 13th 2012, http://www.nursingcenter.com/lnc/journalarticle?Article_ID=1333059 Ardell D., Definitions of health wellness, retrieved: January 13th 2014, http://www.ilru.org/healthwellness/healthinfo/wellness-definition.html Das B., New textbook, health and wellness for life outlines the six dimensions of wellness, 16th January 2014, http://www.humankinetics.com/excerpts/excerpts/new-texbook-health-and-wellness-for-life-outlines-the-six-dimensions-of-wellness Montague J., Whole-person wellness for vital living, retrieved: 18th January 2014, http://www.seniorfitness.net/Whole_Person_Wellness.htm 1 | Page Decision Making Environment Types: Case Study Decision Making Environment Types: Case Study Organization Management Jiani Li There are two major decision-making environments for managers to address changes, the programmed decision-making environment and the non-programmed decision making environment. Due to the different decision-making environments they work in, different managers may make different decisions in change management. In this case, Specialist Apparel Ltd. may use two change management approachesas to address its current change. One approach is to implement the directive approach, which highlights the boss’ right and authority to impose changes. In this case, Henry is the boss who has the authority to impose changes forcibly. Henry favors the directive approach because he works in non-programmed decision making environment, where a new solution is often necessary. The other approach is the expert approach that requires the problems in change management to be resolved by an expert (Northumbria University, 2014). In this case, the Production Director Jim Foster acts as the expert who argues that the company should rely on the existing employees and customers. Jim Foster favors the expert approach due to his programmed decision-making environment where he relies heavily on his past experience. The directive approach requires the company to contract with temporary employees. The expert approach requires the company to remain and train the existing employees so that they can operate the newly-purchased machines. If the directive approach is implemented, the change management will subject to Henry’s idea that the organization should focus on the new orders by bringing in new staff.The proponents of this approach include the boss, the sales staff and the new Korean customer Hyonsung. The key details of this approach: bring contract specialist staff who design the products and run the machines lay off some of the existing employees who are currently useless If the expert approach is implemented, the company should continue to focus on the existing orders by retaining the existing staff. The proponents of this approach include the production staff, the low-level employees, and the existing domestic customers such as Rebel Sport. The key details of this approach: Train the existing employees so that they can use the newly-invested CAM and CNC systems According to Bateman and Zeithaml, organizational change includes three major areas, the technological change, the structural change, and the people change (Advameg, Inc, 2014).All of these changes occur in internal environment of Specialist Apparel Ltd. A firm’s internal environment involves multiple factors including value, vision, policies, employees, shareholder, stakeholders, and assets and so on. In this case, the company can manage the technological change, the structural change, and the people change with use of directive and expert approaches. Firstly, the implementation the directive approach will start with people change by bringing with new staff. Then, the new staff will bring new technology into the organization, resulting in technological changes. At the same time, the company may manage the structural change through team building. Secondly, the implantation of the expert approach will bring about significant technological change to the organization by training the existing employees. Also, structural changes may be made as to support the technological changes. For example, the company may change management structure by establishing a new department. In this case, this approach involves no significant people change. Overall, no matter which of the approaches will be taken, there would be changes to the internal environment. Specialist Apparel Ltd’s change management problem is the conflict between the boss’ desire to obtain new orders and enter new markets and the company’s limited ability to fulfill it. The two approaches can be applied to these problems in different ways. One option to overcome this problem is the directive approach proposed by the Managing Director Henry Buck worth. If this approach is applied, the company will focus on the new contract with the Korean customer but drop 65 percent of the existing business. The company will start â€Å"bringing in new specialist contract staff to design the product and run the new machines†. At the same time, the company will seek to identify how to supply Rebel Sport, its biggest customer in New Zealand for the next few months. According its existing production capacity, Specialist Apparel Ltd would be unable to fulfill the domestic orders. The other option to overcome this problem is to adopt the expert approach proposed by Production Manager Jim Foster. If this approach is applied, the company will focus on supplying the existing customers while abandoning the new orders. To achieve this, the company will train up the existing employees to operate the new equipment. Also, the company will retain the existing designing staff without contracting new ones. 4. A change agent refers to the person who has the authority or skills to stimulate, facilitate, and coordinate the change effort. A change agent can be either internal or external. There are different roles that change agents may play in change management, such as consulting, training, and research (Lunenburg, 2010, p.1). In this case, Hyonsung, Henry Buck worth, and Jim Foster are the three major change agents in the change management process. The Korean customer Hyonsung plays a role of initiator in the change management because the company is the change agent who triggers a series of changes to Specialist Apparel Ltd. The advantage of Hyonsung is that it has determining power to make the changes. The limitation of Hyonsung is that the Korean company has little knowledge of Specialist Apparel Ltd. Henry, as the boss of the company, plays the role of leadership in the change management process. He has the power to enforce the change management approaches. Henry’s advantage in change management is his superior power over the implementation and far vision of the organizational future. However, Henry has limitations due to his lack of knowledge in production. Jim Foster plays the role of consulting in the change management process. As the Production Manager, Jim provides advices about change management approach, but need approval for further implementation. Jim’s advantage is that he is production expert. However, Jim has limitation that he has no overall vision of the organization. 5.  The contextual factors influence the company and the staff’s response differently. The organizational culture, which refers to the beliefs, attitudes, and practices that define an organization. An organizational culture can be described as its personality or character. Organizational culture has double roles. On the one hand, it integrates all the organizational members, facilitating the internal communication. On the other hand, organizational culture also helps organizations make decisions to adapt to external changes. In this case, the organizational culture may play a critical role in making the change management decisions. If the culture of Specialist Apparel Ltd is aggressive, it would be likely to adopt the directive approach, by bringing in new staff and focusing on new orders. By contrast, if the culture of Specialist Apparel Ltd is conservative, it would be more likely to adopt the expert approach, by retaining the existing staff and focusing on the current orders. Management style, refers to the way how the organization is managed. If the company has directive or authoritative manage styles, it is likely to adopt directive change management approach by bringing in new staff. If the company adopts affinitive or participative management style, it is like to adopt expert change management approaching by retaining the existing staff. Organizational ethics and value, which refer to the code of conduct that communicates the value of the organization to its employees(McGew, 2014).If the company pay less attention to stakeholders, it is like to follow the directive approach. If the company’s organizational ethics and value are based on the stakeholder theory, it is like to adopt the expert approach. Participation, which refers to the extent to which the employees participate in the change management. If Specialist Apparel Ltd has low level of participation, it is likely to adopt the directive approach. By contrast, if the organization has high level of participation, it would be more likely to adopt the expert approach. Communication, which refers to the level of communication within the organization. If the company conventionally has low level of communication, it will be more likely to implement the directive approach. By contrast, if the company has high level of communication, it will be more likely to follow the advice given by the Production Manager and adopt the expert approach. Environmental pressure, which refers to the pressure the company receives from the environment. The environment that a firm operates in can be divided into three levels, i.e. the internal environment, the micro environment and the external environment. Accordingly, the environment pressure may come from a number of sources, it is more complex compared to other contextual factors. In this case, the environment pressure mainly from the internal and micro-environment. In the internal environment, the environmental pressure may come from the employees. If the organization receive great pressure from the existing employees, the organization would be more likely to retain the existing staff and provide training courses to them. In the micro-environment, the environmental pressure mainly come from the existing and potential customers. If the existing customer gives great pressure, Specialist Apparel Ltd would be likely to focus on the existing orders. If Specialist Apparel Ltd receives great pressure from the potential customers, it would be likely to bring in new staff and drop some of the existing orders. Reference List: Advameg, Inc., 2014, ‘Managing Organizational Change’ [online]. Available from: http://www.referenceforbusiness.com/small/Mail-Op/Managing-Organizational-Change.html [Accessed 4 June 2014]. Lunenburg, F. (2010) ‘Managing Change: The Role of the Change Agent’, International Journal of Management, Business, and Administration, vol. 13, no. 1, August, pp. 1-6. McGew, M., 2014, ‘Definition of Organizational Ethics Values’ [online]. Available from: http://www.ehow.com/info_8447553_definition-organizational-ethics-values.html [Accessed 4 June 2014]. Northumbria University, 2014, ‘Change strategy and approaches’ [online]. Available from: http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/infokits/change-management/strategy-approaches [Accessed 4 June 2014].